194 VGORCAAMBMUAL ARRRYE V I S I T E D Phrases for talking about past habits Impersonal passive structures in formal writing In formal writing, it is common to use impersonal passive constructions with verbs that express opinions or ideas, such as say, believe, think or know, especially when it is unclear or irrelevant who said or thought something. These ‘vague subjects’ – people, you, they, or we – are typically avoided in formal writing. Instead, we rephrase the sentence using an impersonal passive structure: Active with ‘vague subject’ Impersonal passive structure People often say that live performances are outdated. It is often said that live performances are outdated. (Also possible: Live performances are often said to be outdated.) You can see that live performances are still popular. It can be seen that live performances are still popular. The structure used to (used + infinitive) is used to describe a past habit that has changed, usually because circumstances have changed. It does not tell us exactly when something happened or how long it lasted: Last year, my parents bought an electric car. (specific event in the past) We used to spend a lot of money on petrol, but now that is no longer necessary. (past habit) You can also use used to in questions and negations: Did you use to worry about the environment? I didn’t use to worry about the environment. Note: In questions and negations, we say use to (without -d) because the auxiliary did signals the past tense. However, the most common way to express a negative with used to is with never: I never used to worry about the environment. Used to (used + infinitive) doesn’t have a present form. The phrase be used to is a different structure. It is followed by a gerund and means ‘to be familiar with something’ or ‘to be accustomed to something’: I used to buy bottled water before I learned about the impact of plastic on the oceans. (past habit) When I moved to Austria, I wasn’t used to drinking tap water. (unfamiliarity) Sometimes you can use would to talk about past habits or repeated actions. However, would is not used for past states or facts: I used to go/would go on holiday by plane, but I don’t do that anymore because of my carbon footprint. My uncle used to be/would be relaxed about the climate emergency, but now he understands how dangerous the situation is. Nur zu Prüfzwecken – Eigentum des Verlags öbv
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